An ER diagram in DBMS (database management systems) is a lot like a storyboard for an animated TV show – it’s a collection of diagrams that show how everything fits together. Where a storyboard demonstrates the flow from one scene to the next, an ER diagram highlights the components of your databases and the relationships they share.

Understanding the ER model in DBMS is the first step to getting to grips with basic database software (like Microsoft Access) and more complex database-centric programming languages, such as SQL. This article explores ER diagrams in detail.

ER Model in DBMS

An ER diagram in DBMS is a tangible representation of the tables in a database, the relationships between each of those tables, and the attributes of each table. These diagrams feature three core components:

• Entities – Represented by rectangles in the diagram, entities are objects or concepts used throughout your database.
• Attributes – These are the properties that each entity possesses. ER diagrams use ellipses to represent attributes, with the attributes themselves tending to be the fields in a table. For example, an entity for students in a school’s internal database may have attributes for student names, birthdays, and unique identification numbers.
• Relationships – No entity in an ER diagram is an island, as each is linked to at least one other. These relationships can take multiple forms, with said relationships dictating the flow of information through the database.

Mapping out your proposed database using the ER model is essential because it gives you a visual representation of how the database works before you start coding or creating. Think of it like the blueprint you’d use to build a house, with that blueprint telling you where you need to lay every brick and fit every door.

Entities in DBMS

An Entity in DBMS tends to represent a real-life thing (like the students mentioned previously) that you can identify with certain types of data. Each entity is distinguishable from the others in your database, meaning you won’t have multiple entities listing student details.

Entities come in two flavors:

• Tangible Entities – These are physical things that exist in the real world, such as a person, vehicle, or building.
• Intangible Entities – If you can see and feel an entity, it’s intangible. Bank accounts are good examples. We know they exist (and have data attributed to them) but we can’t physically touch them.

There are also different entity strengths to consider:

• Strong Entities – A strong entity is represented using a rectangle and will have at least one key attribute attached to it that allows you to identify it uniquely. In the student example we’ve already shared, a student’s ID number could be a unique identifier, creating a key attribute that leads to the “Student” entity being strong.
• Weak Entities – Weak entities have no unique identifiers, meaning you can’t use them alone. Represented using double-outlined rectangles, these entities rely on the existence of strong entities to exist themselves. Think of it like the relationship between parent and child. A child can’t exist without a parent, in the same way that a weak entity can’t exist without a strong entity.

Once you’ve established what your entities are, you’ll gather each specific type of entity into an entity set. This set is like a table that contains the data for each entity in a uniform manner. Returning to the student example, any entity that has a student ID number, name, and birthdate, may be placed into an overarching “Student” entity set. They’re basically containers for specific entity types.

Attributes in DBMS

Every entity you establish has attributes attached to it, as you’ve already seen with the student example used previously. These attributes offer details about various aspects of the entity and come in four types:

• Simple Attributes – A simple attribute is any attribute that you can’t break down into further categories. A student ID number is a good example, as this isn’t something you can expand upon.
• Composite Attributes – Composite attributes are those that may have other attributes attached to them. If “Name” is one of your attributes, its composites could be “First Name,” “Surname,” “Maiden Name,” and “Nickname.”
• Derived Attributes – If you can derive an attribute from another attribute, it falls into this category. For instance, you can use a student’s date of birth to derive their age and grade level. These attributes have dotted ellipses surrounding them.
• Multi-valued Attributes – Represented by dual-ellipses, these attributes cover anything that can have multiple values. Phone numbers are good examples, as people can have several cell phone or landline numbers.

Attributes are important when creating an ER model in DBMS because they show you what types of data you’ll use to populate your entities.

Relationships in DBMS

As your database becomes more complex, you’ll create several entities and entity sets, with each having relationships with others. You represent these relationships using lines, creating a network of entities with line-based descriptions telling you how information flows between them.

There are three types of relationships for an ER diagram in DBMS:

• One-to-One Relationships – You’ll use this relationship when one entity can only have one of another entity. For example, if a school issues ID cards to its students, it’s likely that each student can only have one card. Thus, you have a one-to-one relationship between the student and ID card entities.
• One-to-Many Relationships – This relationship type is for when one entity can have several of another entity, but the relationship doesn’t work in reverse. Bank accounts are a good example, as a customer can have several bank accounts, but each account is only accessible to one customer.
• Many-to-Many Relationships – You use these relationships to denote when two entities can have several of each other. Returning to the student example, a student will have multiple classes, with each class containing several students, creating a many-to-many relationship.

These relationships are further broken down into “relationship sets,” which bring together all of the entities that participate in the same type of relationship. These sets have three varieties:

• Unary – Only one entity participates in the relationship.
• Binary – Two entities are in the relationship, such as the student and course example mentioned earlier.
• n-ary – Multiple entities participate in the relationship, with “n” being the number of entities.

Your ER diagram in DBMS needs relationships to show how each entity set relates to (and interacts with) the others in your diagram.

ER Diagram Notations

You’ll use various forms of notation to denote the entities, attributes, relationships, and the cardinality of those relationships in your ER diagram.

Entity Notations

Entities are denoted using rectangles around a word or phrase, with a solid rectangle meaning a strong entity and a double-outlined rectangle denoting a weak entity.

Attribute Notations

Ellipses are the shapes of choice for attributes, with the following uses for each attribute type:

• Simple and Composite Attribute – Solid line ellipses
• Derived Attribute – Dotted line ellipses
• Multi-Valued Attribute – Double-lined ellipses

Relationship Notations

Relationship notation uses diamonds, with a solid line diamond depicting a relationship between two attributes. You may also find double-lined diamonds, which signify the relationship between a weak entity and the strong entity that owns it.

Cardinality and Modality Notations

These lines show you the maximum times an instance in one entity set can relate to the instances of another set, making them crucial for denoting the relationships inside your database.

The endpoint of the line tells you everything you need to know about cardinality and ordinality. For example, a line that ends with three lines (two going diagonally) signifies a “many” cardinality, while a line that concludes with a small vertical line signifies a “one” cardinality. Modality comes into play if there’s a minimum number of instances for an entity type. For example, a person can have many phone numbers but must have at least one.

Steps to Create an ER Diagram in DBMS

With the various notations for an ER diagram in DBMS explained, you can follow these steps to draw your own diagram:

• Identify Entities – Every tangible and intangible object that relates to your database is an entity that you need to identify and define.
• Identify Attributes – Each entity has a set of attributes (students have names, ID numbers, birthdates, etc.) that you must define.
• Identify Relationships – Ask yourself how each entity set fits together to identify the relationships that exist between them.
• Assign Cardinality and Modality – If you have an instance from Entity A, how many instances does it relate to in Entity B? Is there a minimum to consider? Assign cardinalities and modalities to offer the answers.
• Finalize Your Diagram – Take a final pass over the diagram to ensure all required entities are present, they have the appropriate attributes, and that all relationships are defined.

Examples of ER Diagrams in DBMS

Once you understand the basics of the ER model in DBMS, you’ll see how they can apply to multiple scenarios:

• University Databases – A university database will have entities such as “Student,” “Teacher,” “Course,” and “Class.” Attributes depend on the entity, with the people-based entities having attributes including names, dates of birth, and ID numbers. Relationships vary (i.e., a student may only have one teacher but a single teacher may have several students).
• Hospital Management Databases – Entities for this type of database include people (“Patients,” “Doctors,” and “Nurses”), as well as other tangibles, such as different hospital buildings and inventory. These databases can get very complex, with multiple relationships linking the various people involved to different buildings, treatment areas, and inventory.
• E-Commerce Databases – People play an important role in the entities for e-commerce sites, too, because every site needs a list of customers. Those customers have payment details and order histories, which are potential entities or attributes. Product lists and available inventory are also factors.

Master the ER Model in DBMS

An ER diagram in DBMS can look like a complicated mass of shapes and lines at first, making them feel impenetrable to those new to databases. But once you get to grips with what each type of shape and line represents, they become crucial tools to help you outline your databases before you start developing them.

Application of what you’ve learned is the key to success with ER diagrams (and any other topic), so take what you’ve learned here and start experimenting. Consider real-world scenarios (such as those introduced above) and draw diagrams based on the entities you believe apply to those scenarios. Build up from there to figure out the attributes and relationships between entity sets and you’re well on your way to a good ER diagram.

The larger your database, the higher the possibility of data repetition and inaccuracies that compromise the results you pull from the database. Normalization in DBMS exists to counteract those problems by helping you to create more uniform databases in which redundancies are less likely to occur.

Mastering normalization is a key skill in DBMS for the simple fact that an error-strewn database is of no use to an organization. For example, a retailer that has to deal with a database that has multiple entries for phone numbers and email addresses is a retailer that can’t see as effectively as one that has a simple route to the customer. Let’s look at normalization in DBMS and how it helps you to create a more organized database.

The Concept of Normalization

Grab a pack of playing cards and throw them onto the floor. Now, pick up the “Jack of Hearts.” It’s a tough task because the cards are strewn all over the place. Some are facing down and there’s no rhyme, reason, or pattern to how the cards lie, meaning you’re going to have to check every card individually to find the one you want.

That little experiment shows you how critical organization is, even with a small set of “data.” It also highlights the importance of normalization in DBMS. Through normalization, you implement organizational controls using a set of principles designed to achieve the following:

• Eliminate redundancy – Lower (or eliminate) occurrences of data repeating across different tables, or inside individual tables, in your DBMS.
• Minimize data anomalies – Better organization makes it easier to spot datasets that don’t fit the “norm,” meaning fewer anomalies.
• Improve data integrity – More accurate data comes from normalization controls. Database users can feel more confident in their results because they know that the controls ensure integrity.

The Process of Normalization

If normalization in DBMS is all about organization, it stands to reason that they would be a set process to follow when normalizing your tables and database:

1. Decompose your tables – Break every table down into its various parts, which may lead to you creating several tables out of one. Through decomposition, you separate different datasets, eliminate inconsistencies, and set the stage for creating relationships and dependencies between tables.
2. Identify functional dependencies – An attribute in one table may be dependent on another to exist. For example, a “Customer ID” number in a retailer’s “Customer” table is functionally dependent on the “Customer Name” field because the ID can’t exist without the customer. Identifying these types of dependencies ensures you don’t end up with empty records (such as a record with a “Customer ID” and no customer attached to it).
3. Apply normalization rules – Once you’re broken down your table and identified the functional dependencies, you apply relevant normalization rules. You’ll use Normal Forms to do this, with the six highlighted below each having its own rules, structures, and use cases.

Normal Forms in DBMS

There isn’t a “single” way to achieve normalization in DBMS because every database (and the tables it contains) is different. Instead, there are six normal forms you may use, with each having its own rules that you need to understand to figure out which to apply.

First Normal Form (1NF)

If a relation can’t contain multiple values, it’s in 1NF. In other words, each attribute in the table can only contain a single (called “atomic”) value.

Example

If a retailer wants to store the details of its customers, it may have attributes in its table like “Customer Name,” “Phone Number,” and “Email Address.” By applying 1NF to this table, you ensure that the attributes that could contain multiple entries (“Phone Number” and “Email Address”) only contain one, making contacting that customer much simpler.

Second Normal Form (2NF)

A table that’s in 2NF is in 1NF, with the additional condition that none of its non-prime attributes depend on a subset of candidate keys within the table.

Example

Let’s say an employer wants to create a table that contains information about an employee, the skills they have, and their age. An employee may have multiple skills, leading to multiple records for the same employee in the table, with each denoting a skill while the ID number and age of the employee repeat for each record.

In this table, you’ve achieved 1NF because each attribute has an atomic value. However, the employee’s age is dependent on the employee ID number. To achieve 2NF, you’d break this table down into two tables. The first will contain the employee’s ID number and age, with that ID number linking to a second table that lists each of the skills associated with the employee.

Third Normal Form (3NF)

In 3NF, the table you have must already be in 2NF form, with the added rule of removing the transitive functional dependency of the non-prime attribute of any super key. Transitive functional dependency occurs if the dependency is the result of a pair of functional dependencies. For example, the relationship between A and C is a transitive dependency if A depends on B, B depends on C, but B doesn’t depend on A.

Example

Let’s say a school creates a “Students” table with the following attributes:

• Student ID
• Name
• Zip Code
• State
• City
• District

In this case, the “State,” “District,” and “City” attributes all depend on the “Zip Code” attribute. That “Zip” attribute depends on the “Student ID” attribute, making “State,” “District,” and “City” all transitively depending on “Student ID.”

To resolve this problem, you’d create a pair of tables – “Student” and “Student Zip.” The “Student” table contains the “Student ID,” “Name,” and “Zip Code” attributes, with that “Zip Code” attribute being the primary key of a “Student Zip” table that contains the rest of the attributes and links to the “Student” table.

Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF)

Often referred to as 3.5NF, BCNF is a stricter version of 3NF. So, this normalization in DBMS rule occurs if your table is in 3NF, and for every functional dependence between two fields (i.e., A -> B), A is the super key of your table.

Example

Sticking with the school example, every student in a school has multiple classes. The school has a table with the following fields:

• Student ID
• Nationality
• Class
• Class Type
• Number of Students in Class

You have several functional dependencies here:

• Student ID -> Nationality
• Class -> Number of Students in Class, Class Type

As a result, both the “Student ID” and “Class” attributes are candidate keys but can’t serve as keys alone. To achieve BCNF normalization, you’d break the above table into three – “Student Nationality,” “Student Class,” and “Class Mapping,” allowing “Student ID” and “Class” to serve as primary keys in their own tables.

Fourth Normal Form (4NF)

In 4NF, the database must meet the requirements of BCNF, in addition to containing no more than a single multivalued dependency. It’s often used in academic circles, as there’s little use for 4NF elsewhere.

Example

Let’s say a college has a table containing the following fields:

• College Course
• Lecturer
• Recommended Book

Each of these attributes is independent of the others, meaning each can change without affecting the others. For example, the college could change the lecturer of a course without altering the recommended reading or the course’s name. As such, the existence of the course depends on both the “Lecturer” and “Recommended Book” attributes, creating a multivalued dependency. If a DBMS has more than one of these types of dependencies, it’s a candidate for 4NF normalization.

Fifth Normal Form (5NF)

If your table is in 4NF, has no join dependencies, and all joining is lossless, it’s in 5NF. Think of this as the final form when it comes to normalization in DBMS, as you’ve broken your table down so much that you’ve made redundancy impossible.

Example

A college may have a table that tells them which lecturers teach certain subjects during which semesters, creating the following attributes:

• Subject
• Lecturer Name
• Semester

Let’s say one of the lecturers teaches both “Physics” and “Math” for “Semester 1,” but doesn’t teach “Math” for Semester 2. That means you need to combine all of the fields in this table to get an accurate dataset, leading to redundancy. Add a third semester to the mix, especially if that semester has no defined courses or lecturers, and you have to join dependencies.

The 5NF solution is to break this table down into three tables:

• Table 1 – Contains the “Semester” and “Subject” attributes to show which subjects are taught in each semester.
• Table 2 – Contains the “Subject” and “Lecturer Name” attributes to show which lecturers teach a subject.
• Table 3 – Contains the “Semester” and “Lecturer Name” attributes so you can see which lecturers teach during which semesters.

Benefits of Normalization in DBMS

With normalization in DBMS being so much work, you need to know the following benefits to show that it’s worth your effort:

• Improved database efficiency
• Better data consistency
• Easier database maintenance
• Simpler query processing
• Better access controls, resulting in superior security

Limitations and Trade-Offs of Normalization

Normalization in DBMS does have some drawbacks, though these are trade-offs that you accept for the above benefits:

• The larger your database gets, the more demands it places on system performance.
• Breaking tables down leads to complexity.
• You have to find a balance between normalization and denormalization to ensure your tables make sense.

Practical Tips for Mastering Normalization Techniques

Getting normalization in DBMS is hard, especially when you start feeling like you’re dividing tables into so many small tables that you’re losing track of the database. These tips help you apply normalization correctly:

• Understand the database requirements – Your database exists for you to extract data from it, so knowing what you’ll need to extract indicates whether you need to normalize tables or not.
• Document all functional dependencies – Every functional dependence that exists in your database makes the table in which it exists a candidate for normalization. Identify each dependency and document it so you know whether you need to break the table down.
• Use software and tools – You’re not alone when poring through your database. There are plenty of tools available that help you to identify functional dependencies. Many make normalization suggestions, with some even being able to carry out those suggestions for you.
• Review and refine – Every database evolves alongside its users, so continued refining is needed to identify new functional dependencies (and opportunities for normalization).
• Collaborate with other professionals – A different set of eyes on a database may reveal dependencies and normalization opportunities that you don’t see.

Make Normalization Your New Norm

Normalization may seem needlessly complex, but it serves the crucial role of making the data you extract from your database more refined, accurate, and free of repetition. Mastering normalization in DBMS puts you in the perfect position to create the complex databases many organizations need in a Big Data world. Experiment with the different “normal forms” described in this article as each application of the techniques (even for simple tables) helps you get to grips with normalization.

Just like the snake it’s named after, Python has wrapped itself around the programming world, becoming a deeply entrenched teaching and practical tool since its 1991 introduction. It’s one of the world’s most used programming languages, with Statista claiming that 48.07% of programmers use it, making it as essential as SQL, C, and even HTML to computer scientists.

This article serves as an introduction to Python programming for beginners. You’ll learn Python basics, such as how to install it and the concepts that underpin the language. Plus, we’ll show you some basic Python code you can use to have a little play around with the language.

Python Basics

It stands to reason that you need to download and install Python onto your system before you can start using it. The latest version of Python is always available at Python.org. Different versions are available for Windows, Linux, macOS, iOS, and several other machines and operating systems.

Installing Python is a universal process across operating systems. Download the installer for your OS from Python.org and open its executable. Follow the instructions and you should have Python up and running, and ready for you to play around with some Python language basics, in no time.

Python IDEs and Text Editors

Before you can start coding in your newly-installed version of Python, you need to install an integrated development environment (IDE) to your system. These applications are like a bridge between the language you write in and the visual representation of that language on your screen. But beyond being solely source code editors, many IDEs serve as debuggers, compilers, and even feature automation that can complete code (or at least offer suggestions) on your behalf.

Some of the best Python IDEs include:

• Atom
• Visual Studio
• Eclipse
• PyCharm
• Komodo IDE

But there are plenty more besides. Before choosing an IDE, ask yourself the following questions to determine if the IDE you’re considering is right for your Python project:

• How much does it cost?
• Is it easy to use?
• What are its debugging and compiling features?
• How fast is the IDE?
• Does this IDE give me access to the libraries I’ll need for my programs?

Basic Python Concepts

Getting to grips with the Python basics for beginners starts with learning the concepts that underpin the language. Each of these concepts defines actions you can take in the language, meaning they’re essentially for writing even the simplest of programs.

Variables and Data Types

Variables in Python work much like they do for other programming languages – they’re containers in which you store a data value. The difference between Python and other languages is that Python doesn’t have a specific command used to declare a variable. Instead, you create a variable the moment you assign a value to a data type.

As for data types, they’re split into several categories, with most having multiple sub-types you can use to define different variables:

• String – “str”
• Numeric – “int,” “complex,” “float”
• Sequence – “list,” “range,” “tuple”
• Boolean – “bool”
• Binary – “memoryview,” “bytes,” “bytearray”

There are more, though the above should be enough for your Python basics notes. Each of these data types serves a different function. For example, on the numerical side, “int” allows you to store signed integers of no defined length, while “float” lets you assign decimals up to 15 points.

Operators

When you have your variables and values, you’ll use operators to perform actions using them. These actions range from the simple (adding and subtracting numbers) to the complex (comparing values to each other). Though there are many types of operators you’ll learn as you venture beyond the Python language basics, the following three are some of the most important for basic programs:

• Arithmetic operators – These operators allow you to handle most aspects of basic math, including addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication. There are also arithmetic operators for more complex operations, including floor division and exponentiation.
• Comparison operators – If you want to know which value is bigger, comparison operators are what you use. They take two values, compare them, and give you a result based on the operator’s function.
• Logical operators – “And,” “Or,” and “Not” are your logical operators and they combine to form conditional statements that give “True” or “False”

Control Structures

As soon as you start introducing different types of inputs into your code, you need control structures to keep everything organized. Think of them as the foundations of your code, directing variables to where they need to go while keeping everything, as the name implies, under control. Two of the most important control structures are:

• Conditional Statements – “If,” “Else,” and “elif” fall into this category. These statements basically allow you to determine what the code does “if” something is the case (such as a variable equaling a certain number) and what “else” to do if the condition isn’t met.
• Loops – “For” and “while” are your loop commands, with the former being used to create an iterative sequence, with the latter setting the condition for that sequence to occur.

Functions

You likely don’t want every scrap of code you write to run as soon as you start your program. Some chunks (called functions) should only run when they’re called by other parts of the code. Think of it like giving commands to a dog. A function will only sit, stay, or roll over when another part of the code tells it to do what it does.

You need to define and call functions.

Use the “def” keyword to define a function, as you see in the following example:

def first_function():

print (“This is my first function”)

When you need to call that function, you simply type the function’s name followed by the appropriate parenthesis:

first_function()

That “call” tells your program to print out the words “This is my first function” on the screen whenever you use it.

Interestingly, Python has a collection of built-in functions, which are functions included in the language that anybody can call without having to first define the function. Many relate to the data types discussed earlier, with functions like “str()” and “int()” allowing you to define strings and integers respectively.

Python – Basic Programs

Now that you’ve gotten to grips with some of the Python basics for beginners, let’s look at a few simple programs that almost anybody can run.

Hello, World! Program

The starting point for any new coder in almost any new language is to get the screen to print out the words “Hello, World!”. This one is as simple as you can get, as you’ll use the print command to get a piece of text to appear on screen:

print(‘Hello, World! ‘)

Click what “Run” button in your IDE of choice and you’ll see the words in your print command pop up on your monitor. Though this is all simple enough, make sure you make note of the use of the apostrophes/speech mark around the text. If you don’t have them, your message doesn’t print.

Basic Calculator Program

Let’s step things up with one of the Python basic programs for beginners that helps you to get to grips with functions. You can create a basic calculator using the language by defining functions for each of your arithmetic operators and using conditional statements to tell the calculator what to do when presented with different options.

The following example comes from Programiz.com:

# This function adds two numbers

def add(x, y):

return x + y

# This function subtracts two numbers

def subtract(x, y):

return x – y

# This function multiplies two numbers

def multiply(x, y):

return x * y

# This function divides two numbers

def divide(x, y):

return x / y

print(“Select operation.”)

print(“1.Add”)

print(“2.Subtract”)

print(“3.Multiply”)

print(“4.Divide”)

while True:

# Take input from the user

choice = input(“Enter choice(1/2/3/4): “)

# Check if choice is one of the four options

if choice in (‘1’, ‘2’, ‘3’, ‘4’):

try:

num1 = float(input(“Enter first number: “))

num2 = float(input(“Enter second number: “))

except ValueError:

print(“Invalid input. Please enter a number.”)

continue

if choice == ‘1’:

print(num1, “+”, num2, “=”, add(num1, num2))

elif choice == ‘2’:

print(num1, “-“, num2, “=”, subtract(num1, num2))

elif choice == ‘3’:

print(num1, “*”, num2, “=”, multiply(num1, num2))

elif choice == ‘4’:

print(num1, “/”, num2, “=”, divide(num1, num2))

# Check if user wants another calculation

# Break the while loop if answer is no

next_calculation = input(“Let’s do next calculation? (yes/no): “)

if next_calculation == “no”:

break

else:

print(“Invalid Input”)

When you run this code, your executable asks you to choose a number between 1 and 4, with your choice denoting which mathematical operator you wish to use. Then, you enter your values for “x” and “y”, with the program running a calculation between those two values based on the operation choice. There’s even a clever piece at the end that asks you if you want to run another calculation or cancel out of the program.

Simple Number Guessing Game

Next up is a simple guessing game that takes advantage of the “random” module built into Python. You use this module to generate a number between 1 and 99, with the program asking you to guess which number it’s chosen. But unlike when you play this game with your sibling, the number doesn’t keep changing whenever you guess the right answer.

This code comes from Python for Beginners:

import random

n = random.randint(1, 99)

guess = int(input(“Enter an integer from 1 to 99: “))

while True:

if guess < n:

print (“guess is low”)

guess = int(input(“Enter an integer from 1 to 99: “))

elif guess > n:

print (“guess is high”)

guess = int(input(“Enter an integer from 1 to 99: “))

else:

print (“you guessed it right! Bye!”)

break

Upon running the code, your program uses the imported “random” module to pick its number and then asks you to enter an integer (i.e., a whole number) between 1 and 99. You keep guessing until you get it right and the program delivers a “Bye” message.

Python Libraries and Modules

As you move beyond the basic Python language introduction and start to develop more complex code, you’ll find your program getting a bit on the heavy side. That’s where modules come in. You can save chunks of your code into a module, which is a file with the “.py” extension, allowing you to call that module into another piece of code.

Typically, these modules contain functions, variables, and classes that you want to use at multiple points in your main program. Retyping those things at every instance where they’re called takes too much time and leaves you with code that’s bogged down in repeated processes.

Libraries take things a step further by offering you a collection of modules that you can call from as needed, similar to how you can borrow any book from a physical library. Examples include the “Mayplotlib” library, which features a bunch of modules for data visualization, and “Beautiful Soup,” which allows you to extract data from XML and HTML files.

Best Practices and Tips for Basic Python Programs for Beginners

Though we’ve focused primarily on the code aspect of the language in these Python basic notes so far, there are a few tips that will help you create better programs that aren’t directly related to learning the language:

• Write clean code – Imagine that you’re trying to find something you need in a messy and cluttered room. It’s a nightmare to find what you’re looking for because you’re constantly tripping over stuff you don’t need. That’s what happens in a Python program if you create bloated code or repeat functions constantly. Keep it clean and your code is easier to use.
• Debugging and error handling – Buggy code is frustrating to users, especially if that code just dumps them out of a program when it hits an error. Beyond debugging (which everybody should do as standard) you must build error responses into your Python code to let users know what’s happening when something goes wrong.
• Use online communities and resources – Python is one of the most established programming languages in the world, and there’s a massive community built up around it. Take advantage of those resources. Try your hand at a program first, then take it to the community to see if they can point you in the right direction.

Get to Grips With the Basic Concepts of Python

With these Python introduction notes, you have everything you need to understand some of the more basic aspects of the language, as well as run a few programs. Experimentation is your friend, so try taking what you’ve learned here and writing a few other simple programs for yourself. Remember – the Python community (along with stacks of online resources) are available to help you when you’re struggling.

In April 1999, a $433 million Air Force rocket inexplicably malfunctioned almost immediately after liftoff, causing the permanent loss of an $800 million military communications satellite. This $1.2 billion disaster remains one of the costliest accidents in human history.

You might wonder if scientists ever found out what caused this misfiring. They sure did! And the answer is a software bug.

This accident alone is a testament to the importance of software testing.

Although you can probably deduce the software testing definition, let’s also review it together.

So, what is software testing?

Software testing refers to running a software program before putting it on the market to determine whether it behaves as expected and displays no defects.

While testing itself isn’t free, these expenses are cost-effective compared to potential money loss resulting from software failure. And this is just one of the benefits of this process. Others include improving performance, preventing human and equipment loss, and increasing stakeholder confidence.

Now that you understand why software testing is such a big deal, let’s inspect this process in more detail.

Software Testing Fundamentals

We’ll start with the basics – what are the fundamentals of testing in software engineering? In other words, what exactly is its end goal, and which principles underlie it?

Regarding the objectives of software testing, there are three distinct ones aiming to answer crucial questions about the software.

• Verification and validation. Does the software meet all the necessary requirements? And does it satisfy the end customer?
• Defects and errors identification. Does the software have any defects or errors? What is their scope and impact? And did they cause related issues?
• Software quality assurance. Is the software performing at optimal levels? Can the software engineering process be further optimized?

As for principles of software testing, there are seven of them, and they go as follows:

1. Testing shows the presence of defects. With everything we’ve written about software testing, this sounds like a given. But this principle emphasizes that testing can only confirm the presence of defects. It can’t confirm their absence. So, even if no flaws are found, it doesn’t mean the system has none.
2. Exhaustive testing is impossible. Given how vital software testing is, this process should ideally test all the possible scenarios to confirm the program is defect-free without a shadow of a doubt. Unfortunately, this is impossible to achieve in practice. There’s simply not enough time, money, or space to conduct such testing. Instead, test analysts can only base the testing amount on risk assessment. In other words, they’ll primarily test elements that are most likely to fail.
3. Testing should start as early as possible. Catching defects in the early stages of software development makes all the difference for the final product. It also saves lots of money in the process. For this reason, software testing should start from the moment its requirements are defined.
4. Most defects are within a small number of modules. This principle, known as defect clustering, follows the Pareto principle or the 80/20 rule. The rule states that approximately 80% of issues can be found in 20% of modules.
5. Repetitive software testing is useless. Known as the Pesticide Paradox, this principle warns that conducting the same tests to discover new defects is a losing endeavor. Like insects become resistant to a repeatedly used pesticide mix, the tested software will become “immune” to the same tests.
6. Testing is context-dependent. The same set of tests can rarely be used on two separate software programs. You’ll need to switch testing techniques, methodologies, and approaches based on the program’s application.
7. The software program isn’t necessarily usable, even without defects. This principle is known as the absence of errors fallacy. Just because a system is error-free doesn’t mean it meets the customer’s business needs. In software testing objectives, software validation is as important as verification.

Types of Software Testing

There are dozens (if not hundreds) types of testing in software engineering. Of course, not all of these tests apply to all systems. Choosing the suitable types of testing in software testing boils down to your project’s nature and scope.

All of these testing types can be broadly classified into three categories.

Functional Testing

Functional software testing types examine the system to ensure it performs in accordance with the pre-determined functional requirements. We’ll explain each of these types using e-commerce as an example.

• Unit Testing – Checking whether each software unit (the smallest system component that can be tested) performs as expected. (Does the “Add to Cart” button work?)
• Integration Testing – Ensuring that all software components interact correctly within the system. (Is the product catalog seamlessly integrated with the shopping cart?)
• System Testing – Verifying that a system produces the desired output. (Can you complete a purchase?)
• Acceptance Testing – Ensuring that the entire system meets the end users’ needs. (Is all the information accurate and easy to access?)

Non-Functional Testing

Non-functional types of testing in software engineering deal with the general characteristics of a system beyond its functionality. Let’s go through the most common non-functional tests, continuing the e-commerce analogy.

• Performance Testing – Evaluating how a system performs under a specific workload. (Can the e-commerce shop handle a massive spike in traffic without crashing?)
• Usability Testing – Checking the customer’s ability to use the system effectively. (How quickly can you check out?)
• Security Testing – Identifying the system’s security vulnerabilities. (Will sensitive credit card information be stored securely?)
• Compatibility Testing – Verifying if the system can run on different platforms and devices. (Can you complete a purchase using your mobile phone?)
• Localization Testing – Checking the system’s behavior in different locations and regions. (Will time-sensitive discounts take time zones into account?)

Maintenance Testing

Maintenance testing takes place after the system has been produced. It checks whether (or how) the changes made to fix issues or add new features have affected the system.

• Regression Testing – Checking whether the changes have affected the system’s functionality. (Does the e-commerce shop work seamlessly after integrating a new payment gateway?)
• Smoke Testing – Verifying the system’s basic functionality before conducting more extensive (and expensive!) tests. (Can the new product be added to the cart?)
• Sanity Testing – Determining whether the new functionality operates as expected. (Does the new search filter select products adequately?)

Levels of Software Testing

Software testing isn’t done all at once. There are levels to it. Four, to be exact. Each level contains different types of tests, grouped by their position in the software development process.

Read about the four levels of testing in software testing here.

Level 1: Unit Testing

Unit testing helps developers determine whether individual system components (or units) work properly. Since it takes place at the lowest level, this testing sets the tone for the rest of the software development process.

This testing plays a crucial role in test-driven development (TDD). In this methodology, developers perform test cases first and worry about writing the code for software development later.

Level 2: Integration Testing

Integration testing focuses on the software’s inner workings, checking how different units and components interact. After all, you can’t test the system as a whole if it isn’t coherent from the start.

During this phase, testers use two approaches to integration testing: top-down (starting with the highest-level units) and bottom-up (integrating the lowest-level units first).

Level 3: System Testing

After integration testing, the system can now be evaluated as a whole. And that’s exactly what system testing does.

System testing methods are usually classified as white-box or black-box testing. The primary difference is whether the testers are familiar with the system’s internal code structure. In white-box testing, they are.

Level 4: Acceptance Testing

Acceptance testing determines whether the system delivers on its promises. Two groups are usually tasked with acceptance testing: quality assessment experts (alpha testing before the software launches) and a limited number of users (beta testing in a real-time environment).

Software Testing Process

Although some variations might exist, the software testing process typically follows the same pattern.

Step 1: Planning the Test

This step entails developing the following:

• Test strategy for outlining testing approaches
• Test plan for detailing testing objectives, priorities, and processes
• Test estimation for calculating the time and resources needed to complete the testing process

Step 2: Designing the Test

In the design phase, testers create the following:

• Test scenarios (hypothetical situations used to test the system)
• Test cases (instructions on how the system should be tested)
• Test data (set of values used to test the system)

Step 3: Executing the Test

Text execution refers to performing (and monitoring) the planned and designed tests. This phase begins with setting up the test environment and ends with writing detailed reports on the findings.

Step 4: Closing the Test

After completing the testing, testers generate relevant metrics and create a summary report on their efforts. At this point, they have enough information to determine whether the tested software is ready to be released.

High-Quality Testing for High-Quality Software

Think of different types of software testing as individual pieces of a puzzle that come together to form a beautiful picture. Performing software testing hierarchically (from Level 1 to Level 4) ensures no stone is left unturned, and the tested software won’t let anyone down.

With this in mind, it’s easy to conclude that you should only attempt software development projects if you implement effective software testing practices first.

Books represent gateways to new worlds, allowing us to gain valuable knowledge on virtually any topic. Those interested in exploring computer science books face two challenges. First, just like you can’t build a good house without a proper foundation, you can’t expand your knowledge if you don’t understand basic concepts. Secondly, technology is always evolving, so besides understanding how things work, you need to stay current with the latest trends.

Finding books that help you build a good foundation and follow innovations isn’t easy. Fortunately, you don’t have to go through hundreds of titles to find the good ones. Here, we’ll introduce you to the best BSc Computer Science books that will set you up for success.

Top BSc Computer Science Books

These BSc Computer Science books can “program” your mind and help you absorb knowledge.

Introduction to Computer Science

Many people are eager to learn how to program and immerse themselves in the IT world. But the first step toward that is adopting fundamentals. Before jumping into the IT industry, you need to learn more about computer science and the basic concepts behind it.

Computer Science Illuminated by Nell Dale and John Lewis

This student-friendly book sheds light on computer science. It explores operating systems, hardware, software, and networks from “neutral ground” (without focusing on particular programming languages). Therefore, if you don’t “speak” programming languages just yet, this book will be your best friend.

Intro to Python for Computer Science and Data Science: Learning to Program With AI, Big Data, and the Cloud by Paul Deitel and Harvey Deitel

If you want to be a programming expert, you may need to speak Python, a universal language with a wide array of applications. This book teaches you how to use Python in computer science and offers the perfect balance between theoretical and practical knowledge. It transforms complex information into comprehensive and engaging data.

Data Structures and Algorithms

Finding the best BSc Computer Science book on data structures and algorithms can feel like trying to find a needle in a haystack. We found the needle for you and offer the best options.

Data Structures and Algorithms Made Easy by Narasimha Karumanchi

This book is a winner in the data structures and algorithms game. It’s the perfect option for beginners interested in learning the topic from scratch and building a solid foundation for more advanced levels. It covers basic concepts and moves on to more complex stuff without overwhelming the readers.

Data Structures and Algorithms in Java by Robert Lafore

If you’re familiar with Java and want to start with data structures and algorithms, this book is the gold standard. It will guide you on a journey from basic Arrays and Strings to advanced structures like Hash-Tables and Graphs.

Computer Networks

Computer networks are grids through which computing devices “talk to” each other and share data. Here are the books you can use to improve your knowledge and get ahead in your career.

Computer Networks by Andrew S. Tanenbaum

If you want to understand the nitty-gritty behind computer networks, this book is the way to go. Hop on a journey through email, the world wide web, video conferencing, and much more, to understand how the networks work and how to use them to your advantage.

Every chapter follows the same, easy-to-follow structure containing basic principles and real-life examples.

Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach by James F. Kurose and Keith W. Ross

This beginner-friendly book takes a somewhat unusual approach. It first introduces students to applications and uses them to explain fundamental concepts. That way, students are exposed to the “real world” early on and can understand how networking works with ease.

 

Operating Systems

An operating system for a computer is like oxygen for a human; it can’t live without it. Operating systems are interfaces that support everything computers do. Here are the best books about them.

Operating Systems: Three Easy Pieces by Remzi Arpaci-Dusseau and Andrea Arpaci-Dusseau

How do operating systems work? What are the three basic concepts hiding behind every OS? Find the answers to these questions and learn everything OS-related in this book. While beginner-friendly, this amazing study can be combined with more advanced materials and offer a deeper understanding of modern OSs.

Guide to Operating Systems by Greg Tomsho

This book represents a detailed guide on installing, updating, maintaining, and configuring operating systems and everything related to them. Besides offering general info, the book explores specific OSs and allows you to peek into this world without feeling overwhelmed.

Database Systems

Database systems are like virtual warehouses where you can keep your data secure. They’re the ones we can “thank” for easy information retrieval, browsing, and organization. If you want to learn the ins and outs of database systems, these books can help.

Database Systems: The Complete Book by Hector Garcia-Molina, Jeffrey D. Ullman, and Jennifer Widom

This book is the holy grail for many computer science students. It offers a comprehensive approach and detailed explanations of everything related to database system design, use, and implementation. The book is extensive, but it’s written in an engaging way, so reading through it is a breeze.

Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management by Carlos Colonel and Steven Morris

Building your virtual warehouses for storing data may seem impossible. But it can become your reality thanks to this excellent book. It contains clear and comprehensive instructions on building database systems, offers concrete examples, but also focuses on the bigger picture and latest industry trends.

Software Engineering

Designing and constructing software is no walk in the park. If you’re interested in this industry, you need to build your skills meticulously. Books that can help you on this exciting (and sometimes frustrating) journey are reviewed below.

Clean Code: A Handbook of Agile Software Craftsmanship by Robert C. Martin

In this book, Robert C. Martin, a software engineering legend, discusses the seemingly insignificant differences between bad and poorly-written codes. He explains which “symptoms” bad codes manifest and how to clean them.

Code Complete: A Practical Handbook of Software Construction by Steve McConnell

One of the first (and smartest) steps toward building quality code is getting this book. Here, the author summarized everything there is to know about constructing software. Since the book contains both the basics and the more advanced construction practices, everyone finds it useful, both beginners and pros.

Additional Resources for BSc Computer Science Students

BSc Computer Science books aren’t the only spring you should drink water from if you’re thirsty for knowledge on the subject.

Online Platforms and Courses

Online platforms and courses are great resources for those who want to expand their knowledge and learn how to cash it in. The internet is overflowing with great courses focusing on various aspects of computer science. Here are a few ideas to get you started:

• Open Institute of Technology (OPIT) – The institute offers a comprehensive online BSc in Computer Science. Throughout the program, students get acquainted with everything computer science-related. After completing their studies, they’ll be able to land high-paying jobs.

• Udemy and Coursera – Although not “official” institutes and universities, these platforms deserve a seat at the table. Both Udemy and Coursera offer quality computer science courses held by some of the most respected names in the industry.

Coding Practice Websites

You’ve read books, attended courses, and feel like you know everything there is to know about the theoretical part. But is there a way to put this theory into practice and see whether your codes work? The answer is yes! Practice makes perfect, and coding practice websites will become your best friends and help you conquer programming.

• Coderbyte – Solve real-life coding issues and drive your skills to perfection. With over a dozen available programming languages, you can try out as many ideas as you’d like.
• HackerRank – HackerRank is home to hundreds of coding challenges. Plus, it has leaderboards, so you can see how you compare to other coders. It’s also home to useful tutorials, and since the website is popular, you may even be able to land your dream job.

Computer Science Forums and Communities

Is there a better place for like-minded people to meet and discuss the topics they’re passionate about? Computer science forums and communities should be an important stop on your way to becoming an expert on the subject.

Tips for Success in BSc Computer Science

Success doesn’t happen overnight (at least for most people). If computer science is your true passion, here’s how to master it:

• Focus on the basics to create a good foundation.
• Put your thinking cap on and practice problem-solving and critical thinking skills.
• Participate in group projects and collaborations (teamwork makes the dream work).
• Keep up with the latest industry trends.
• Gain valuable hands-on experience through internships.

Acquire Computer Science Knowledge Effectively

Although books don’t offer practical knowledge, they can be invaluable allies in setting a great theoretical foundation. By carefully choosing the best books and putting effort into developing your skills, you’ll become a pro in a jiff.

Computers are already ubiquitous in the workplace, with the constantly-evolving concept of cloud computing becoming so popular that Tech Jury says 90% of businesses were in the cloud (in some form) in 2022. All of those systems need maintenance and software, requiring people who are dab-hands with keyboards at their fingertips to build networks, analyze data, and develop software.

Enter computer scientists.

By studying computer science, you open yourself up to a branching career path that could take you into almost any sort of business. But before that, you need to know the answer to a simple question – “Is BSc Computer Science a good course?”

Understanding BSc Computer Science

Think of a BSc in Computer Science as though it’s a buffet, with every topic covered being a different dish. You’ll get a taste of everything that’s on offer in the computing field, with your later educational (and career) decisions being based on the dish (i.e., the topic) that you like best. Among those topics and study areas are the following:

• Networks and Computer Systems – Taking a more hardware-oriented focus (though software plays a part), this topic covers how to connect computers so they can interact with one another.
• Programming – The language of computers is one you’ll need to learn how to speak if you want to develop software or websites. You’ll discover that there are a lot of languages to choose from, each with its own specific uses.
• Artificial Intelligence (AI) – As one of the fastest-growing fields in computing (Statista anticipates growth from $100 billion in 2021 to almost $2 trillion by 2030), AI is already becoming essential in business. You’ll learn the concepts that govern AI, such as machine learning and neural networks.
• Network Security – Every advancement in computer science brings with it malicious parties who wish to use (or subvert) that advancement to their own ends. Computer science courses teach the foundational aspects of network security, setting the stage for later specialization.

Moving beyond what you study (and the topics listed above are not exhaustive), another important factor when choosing a BSc in Computer Science is the learning format.

Traditional universities typically require full-time, on-campus attendance, which can make it harder to balance studies with work or other commitments. In contrast, online programs offer significantly greater flexibility, allowing you to study alongside a job and adapt learning around your personal schedule.

Another key advantage of online study is cost efficiency. By studying remotely, you avoid additional expenses such as rent, relocation, and daily commuting, making it a more accessible and financially sustainable option for many students.

Benefits of BSc Computer Science

Assuming you’re willing to place the time (and monetary) investment into a BSc in Computer Science, there are three core benefits you’ll get from the course.

1 – Acquire In-Demand Skills and Knowledge

The basics you learn are in demand in most companies, with many offering additional training and tuition to help you build beyond the basics to become a specialist. Key areas of interest for employers include:

• Programming – Those who can speak the language that lies behind software are always in demand, with programmers earning an average hourly rate of $33.10, according to Indeed. Salary expectations climb as you move through the ranks, with senior software engineers capable of earning in the early six figures.
• Data Structures and Algorithms – Problem solvers are popular in any business. The knowledge of algorithms you develop when studying computer science allows you to create code (almost like a set of steps) that’s designed to solve problems. The same applies to data structures, which focus on the locations and methods used to keep data organized.
• Computer Networks and Security – Even a small office has a network of computers, laptops, smart devices, printers, and servers that all need to communicate with one another. Computer scientists enable that communication, and keep the “conversations” machines have with each other shielded from intruding eyes.

2 – Versatility and Adaptability in the Job Market

Computer science graduates are like the chameleons of the job market. They have so much foundational knowledge in an array of subjects that they’re well-placed to be “Jacks of all trades” as general computer experts. Plus, the base they have can be built from, setting the stage for them to specialize in specific areas of computing based on their preferences.

We’ll dig into some specific roles you could take (along with their salaries) in the next section of the article.

3 – Opportunities for Further Education and Specialization

You’re already part way down the road to computer science mastery once you have your BSc, so why stop there? The opportunity exists for further education and specialization, which could open the door to further career opportunities:

• Masters and Ph.D. Programs – A Master’s degree in computer science (or a related subject) is the next logical educational step once you have your BSc. You’ll build on what you’ve already learned, in addition to having a chance to specialize in your thesis. PhD programs aren’t immediately open (you’ll need your Master’s first) but they give you a chance to delve into subject-specific research and could set you up for a career in teaching computer science.
• Professional Certifications – If you prefer the less formal educational route, professional certifications enable you to study at your own pace and give you handy pieces of paper you can use to prove your skills. Great examples include Cisco’s CCIE program and CompTIA’s range of certifications.

Job Prospects and Career Opportunities

Building on the previous mention about your chameleon-like ability to get jobs in multiple fields, you need to know is BSc in Computer Science good for the career-focused student. These are the roles you can get (with salary data from Indeed).

Software Development and Engineering

Rather than being the person who uses software, you can be the person who forms and puts together the building blocks that make the software tick. Software developers and engineers use their coding skills to create the next great apps, websites, computer games, and anything else that needs a computer or mobile device to run.

Average Salary – $114,470

Data Analysis and Data Science

Data, data everywhere, and not a drop to drink. That little spin on the classic “lost at sea” phrase tells you everything you need to know about how many companies feel in the Big Data world. They’re collecting tons of data but don’t know how to organize what they have or extract useful information from it. Data analysts and scientists solve that problem.

Average Salary (Data Analyst) – $74,570

Average Salary (Data Scientist) – $129,574

Cybersecurity and Network Administration

There’s a never-ending battle being waged between network administrators and hackers, with each trying to stay one step ahead of the other. Cyberattacks are on the rise, with Security Magazine pointing out that attacks around the globe increased by 38% in 2022. That means there’s always demand for cybersecurity specialists.

Average Salary – $107,063

Research and Academia

Rather than using your skills to benefit private enterprises, you could be responsible for the next generation of computer scientists. The academic path is a noble one, though not always the most profitable, and it affords you the chance to research the subjects you’re passionate about. The level you reach in academia depends on your own academic accomplishments, with a BSc usually being enough for school-level teaching. You’ll need a Master’s or Ph.D. to go into further education or complex research.

Average Salary (Computing Teacher) – $26.79 per hour

Entrepreneurship and Freelance Opportunities

Why restrict yourself to a single company when you could build your own or spread your scientific seeds wide by becoming a freelancer? More control over your destiny is the biggest benefit of this career path, though there’s a more “sink or swim” mentality. Those who hit it big with a great business idea can hit it really big, but there are plenty of failed computing businesses on the entrepreneurial road.

Average Salary – It all depends on what you do and how well you do it

Factors to Consider When Evaluating the Worth of BSc Computer Science

If you’re still asking “Is BSc Computer Science a good course?” the answer is a definite “yes.” But there are some factors to consider before you commit to several years of computing studies:

• Personal Interests and Aptitude – Success in any area of study requires a passion for your subject and a certain amount of talent in the field. If you’re missing one (or both) of these for computer science then a BSc may not be for you.
• Job Market Trends – It’s very possible to make a six-figure salary as a computer scientist, though specialization is often needed to hit the highest figures. Still, it’s worth keeping an eye on what’s happening with the job market to ensure you’re studying toward a future role.
• Return on Investment – Undergraduate programs can cost anywhere between $15,000 and $85,000, so you need to feel confident that a computer science course is the right one for your future career. Otherwise, you’re left with a massive hole in your bank balance that you need to fill with student loan repayments.
• Job Satisfaction – Working yourself into the ground is never a good thing. You need to feel confident that you’ll achieve the appropriate balance between your work, personal, and family lives.

Comparing BSc Computer Science With Other Courses

A BSc in Computer Science is far from your only choice if you’re interested in delving into computers. Here are three alternatives to consider.

BSc Information Technology

Though an IT degree covers some of the same ground as a computer science one (especially when it comes to computer networks), you’ll trade theoretical knowledge for practical application. Expect to do a lot of work with databases and basic software, with some coding along the way.

BSc Data Science

As a more specialized course, a BSc in Data Science sees you delving deeper into the math and statistics behind computational systems. You’ll learn how to analyze data and may get a better grip on emerging tech, such as machine learning, than you would with a computer science degree.

Bachelor of Engineering (Computer Science)

A bachelor of engineering takes a more hardware-centric focus than a BSc, with this course teaching more about the principles of electrical engineering and how our computing devices actually work. There are still software components, and you’ll touch on similar subjects to a BSc, but you’ll get more practical experience with this course.

Is a BSc in Computer Science Good for You?

The most important question to ask isn’t “Is BSc Computer Science a good course,” but rather is it the right course for you? Your career goals, coupled with your desire (or lack thereof) to invest your time and money into the degree, may be the main deciding factors.

As with any course, ask yourself what the ultimate benefit is to you and weigh up your options (remembering that there are several types of computing degrees) to make the right choice.

According to Data USA, degrees in the business field are among the most popular in the United States, with 840,116 degrees in this field alone being awarded in 2020. You went down the commerce route (meaning you have a grasp of business administration, accounting, and applied economics) and now you’re interested in practical applications of your knowledge.

With your commerce degree firmly under your belt, you may feel like a ship without a rudder – aimless and having no idea what direction to go. Happily, the tech field is ready and waiting for you, as a career in computer sciences may await. Here, we ask, “can a commerce student do BSc Computer Science?” The answer may surprise you, especially if you’re worried that a computer science degree’s eligibility requirements are outside the scope of what you learned in your commerce studies.

Background on Commerce and Computer Science

On the surface, commerce and computer science may seem like they go together as well as peanut butter and granite. But if you dig a little deeper into the scope of each subject, you start to realize that there’s more crossover than there first appears:

• Commerce – A degree in commerce gives you a firm grasp of the numbers that lie behind the scenes in a business, with banking, economics, and accounting all falling under your developing areas of expertise. Analytics is also a key part of these courses (especially in the research and data analyst fields), which is where we see some crossover with computer science.
• Computer Science – If commerce is all about the behind-the-scenes numbers in business, computer science handles what goes on under the hood in computing. Software development, data modeling, and analysis all fall under the computer science graduate’s remit, with the ability to pore through data to come to conclusions being essential to this technical subject.

It’s in the analysis that we start to see similarities between commerce and computer science emerge. Yes, commerce focuses more on the numbers behind businesses (and wider economic trends), but the ability to understand the data presented and report on what you see has applications in the computer science field. There’s not a direct crossover, as computer science will require you to learn the “language” in which computers speak, but they are many soft skills you develop in a commerce degree that apply to computer science.

Eligibility for BSc Computer Science

The key questions to ask when considering the issue of whether can commerce student do BSc Computer Science split into two categories:

• The general eligibility requirements to study a BSc in computer science
• Specific requirements that apply to commerce students

Eligibility Criteria for BSc Computer Science

BSc Computer Science degrees don’t require a great deal of computer know-how (though it helps), instead focusing on your grasp of mathematics. Requirements include the following:

• A high school diploma (or your country’s equivalent) that shows solid performance in mathematical subjects.
  • Some degrees require you to achieve a specific Grade Point Average (GPA), though the specific GPA varies depending on where you apply.
• A high level of English proficiency, which can be measured using one (or both) of the following tests:
  • IELTS – Get a minimum score between 6.0 and 7.0
  • TOEFL – Get a minimum score between 90 and 100

Beyond these educational requirements, international students may need to submit copies of their passport and Visa, alongside certified academic transcripts to show they’ve achieved their country’s equivalents of the above grades. Not all courses require this of international students, with some online universities focusing more on your academic skills and less on your country of origin.

In terms of entrance exams, some colleges enforce computer science-specific exams (such as the CUET or CUCET), while others use NPATS or similar, more general exams, to determine proficiency.

Eligibility Criteria for Commerce Students

You may be standing at the starting line of your educational journey, meaning you’ve not yet applied to start your degree in commerce. First, congratulations on thinking so far ahead that you’re wondering “Can a commerce student do BSc Computer Science?” And second, you need to know what high school subjects help you get onto this degree path.

Commerce is a form of business degree, meaning any high school subjects that apply to the economic world help. Subjects like math, finance, economics, and foreign languages are obvious choices. The likes of marketing and computer applications also help (with the latter also laying some groundwork for your later computer science studies.

Much like computer science, you’ll likely have to take an entrance exam when applying to study commerce at most universities. The CSEET, CUET, and SET are common choices, with the first of these exams focusing specifically on those who study commerce to work as company secretaries.

The Possibility of Flexible Eligibility Criteria

Not all colleges require you to take entrance exams, with some even using broader strokes for their eligibility requirements to the point where they provide flexibility for both commerce and computer science students.

Colleges with open curriculums (such as Brown University and Hamilton College) offer more freedom in terms of what you study, with their entry requirements being more flexible as a result. Online institutions, such as the Open Institute of Technology (OPIT) may also offer more flexible entry criteria, sometimes allowing you to transfer credit from one course to another. That type of credit transfer may be ideal for you if you start a degree in commerce only to later decide to go down the computer science route.

Career Prospects for Commerce Students in Computer Science

When it comes to careers for those who hold computer science degrees, the obvious heavy-hitters are software and web development, IT management, and systems architecture. There are also exciting careers in the emerging AI fields that take full advantage of the technical skills you’ll develop as part of a BSc in computer science.

As for the career crossover between commerce and computer science, the key is to think about the skills that a commerce degree gives you that can apply in the computing field. Such skills include the following:

• Analytical Skills – Much like computer science, commerce is all about analyzing the data presented so you can report (and leverage) it for other purposes. Your ability to sit down and pore through the numbers will take you a long way in a computer-related role.
• Problem-Solving Skills – Closely linked to analytical skills, the ability to solve problems requires you to see the data at hand and come up with solutions while accounting for any restrictions presented. In creating commerce models, those restrictions may relate to budget and competencies, while computer science asks you to solve problems while taking system capabilities and limitations into account.
• Communication and Teamwork – Though often considered soft skills (as opposed to the “hard” technical skills you learn in a commerce degree), communication and teamwork are vital. If you need proof, try to work alone in any technical career and you’ll see why it’s so crucial to have these skills.

Potential Career Paths for Commerce Students with a BSc in Computer Science

With so much crossover potential between commerce and computer science, it’s clear that the answer to the question can a commerce student do BSc Computer Science is a resounding “yes.” And once you’ve completed your studies, several career paths await:

• Data Analyst – Reviewing data to find insights (be that into businesses or computer systems) are part of the remit for a data analyst. This role is all about problem-solving, which is a skill you’ll develop in abundance as a commerce and computer science student.
• Business Analyst – Take the ability to gather insights that is required of a data analyst and apply it specifically to areas of improvement in a business to become a business analyst. You’ll combine technical knowledge of a company’s inner workings with complex financial (and computational) models.
• IT Consultant – More computer science-centric than commerce-focused, IT consultants deal with the hows and whys of the computer networks businesses build. Your commerce skills will still come into play though, particularly when explaining how IT benefits businesses financially.
• Financial Technology Specialist – Combining the best of both worlds, this role combines the accounting skills you develop studying commerce with the technical ability needed to understand software and its functions.

 

Challenges and Considerations for Commerce Students

Though it’s possible for a commerce student to study (and succeed in) computer science, there are some challenges to consider.

The Technical Nature of Computer Science

As you learn the language of numbers in a commerce degree, so must you learn the language of machines when studying computer science. Getting to grips with the lingo (not to mention coding) can present a challenge to more business-minded students.

Balancing Your Workload

There’s an old saying that goes “Don’t burn the candle at both ends,” which is a warning not to pack too much onto your work plate. If you study commerce and computer science simultaneously, there’s a risk you may push yourself too far. Avoiding burnout requires finding the balance between your studies and personal time.

Networking and Practical Experience

As a commerce student, you understand that the world of business is as much about who you know as what you know. Finding the right people to take a chance on you, thus giving you practical experience, can be tough. But when armed with a pair of degrees in subjects that complement one another, you’re in a better position to build connections with people who can help you go far.

From Commerce to Computing – Is It Right for You?

So, can a commerce student do BSc Computer Science?

The answer isn’t just “yes,” but that it’s actually a great direction to go. Where a commerce degree equips you with a nice mix of technical knowledge and soft skills, a computer science course gives you even more practical knowledge that allows you to enter more specialized fields. However, your interest in each subject plays a role, as your ability (and passion) for studying hinges on your desire to dig into the more technical world of computing.

Assuming you have a genuine interest (and meet the appropriate eligibility criteria), supplementing your commerce studies with computer science can open up many career paths.

Do you tend to get all technical about how computers work? Or, do you prefer to put your thinking cap on and dig deep into theory and research?

These questions matter because they can help you choose between BCA and BSc Computer Science. One focuses on practical knowledge, while the other explores the nitty-gritty behind technical concepts.

In this BCA vs. BSc computer science: which is better guide, we’ll provide detailed information about the two courses and help point you in the right direction.

BCA: Bachelor of Computer Applications

To resolve the BSc computer science vs. BCA confusion, we need to discuss both in detail. Let’s start with BCA: Bachelor of Computer Applications.

Overview of the BCA Program

Duration

BCA is typically a three-year professional undergraduate course focused on learning computer languages and applications. Since the focus is on applications, the BCA program is a software-oriented course (which is great for those who don’t enjoy learning too much theory).

Course Structure

The course structure depends on your chosen university. In most cases, you’ll have five core subjects per semester. Additionally, you’ll choose electives to learn more about specific computer-related topics.

Eligibility Criteria

Every university is free to set its own criteria for enrolling in a BCA program. Still, there are some tendencies you should know about. Students who studied arts, commerce, or science are most welcome to apply. Some universities may also have specific entrance exams that test subject-related knowledge.

Key Subjects Covered in BCA

As mentioned, the course structure in BCA programs varies (depending on the university). Regardless, every student needs to cover core subjects that will equip them to conquer the industry.

Programming Languages

Programming languages are like human languages. But rather than allowing communication among people, these languages let us “talk to” computers. This subject covers the basics of Java, HTML, C, C++, and others.

Database Management

Think of database management systems as computerized data-keeping solutions. Learning how to work with these systems is essential to ensure proper information storage and retrieval, and this is exactly what students learn on this course.

Web Development

Want to know how to create and maintain websites? This subject offers insight into behind-the-scenes work that goes into developing online stores, social networks, blogs, business websites, and others.

Networking

This subject explores the secret language in which computers, systems, and devices communicate with one another. All of which sheds light on how to connect them to share data.

Career Prospects After BCA

A degree in computer application opens doors to various career paths. Here are the job positions you can apply for after completing your studies:

• Game Designer
• System Specialist
• Technical Support
• Web Designer
• Network Administrator
• System Manager
• Software Tester
• Programmer

In terms of continuing your education, these options are available:

• Master in Computer Application
• Master of Science in Information Technology
• Master in Business Administration

BSc Computer Science: Bachelor of Science in Computer Science

If you want to know which is better: BCA or BSc Computer Science, you need to learn more about them. Since we’ve covered the BCA program, it’s time to discuss BSc Computer Science.

Overview of the BSc Computer Science Program

Duration

The program lasts 3 years, and students can choose between two intakes: spring and fall.

Course Structure

One of the first things students are interested in is the course structure. In most cases, you’ll have six terms – five terms of courses and one for the final project (dissertation).

That being said, remember that every university sets its own course structure.

Eligibility Criteria

Universities set their eligibility criteria. Therefore, each institution has unique standards students have to meet to enroll. Some universities have strict requirements, the most common being a background in physics, chemistry, or mathematics.

If you don’t meet these criteria, no worries. Online degree programs like the Open Institute of Technology (Opit) have easy-to-meet entry requirements, such as English proficiency (at least a B2 level) and high school education.

Key Subjects Covered in BSc Computer Science

The BSc Computer Science program features several core subjects.

Programming Languages

During this course, students learn how to “speak” programming languages. They’re introduced to fundamental concepts and common logical and/or syntactical problems they need to resolve.

Data Structures and Algorithms

If you want to learn how to organize data or solve a particular problem, you’ll find the answers to these questions and more in this course.

Operating Systems

Every OS is an entity of its own with unique anatomies, functions, and layers.

Computer Networks

A computer network is a cluster of interconnected dots that communicate with each other and transfer data. During this course, you’ll learn how this communication works.

Career Prospects After BSc Computer Science

What can you do after BSc Computer Science? The program allows you to explore a wide array of job positions:

• Software Developer/Engineer
• Web Developer
• Data Scientist
• Cyber Security Analyst
• Database Architect
• IT Business Analyst
• App/Game Developer
• Database Architect

BSc Computer Science offers an excellent theoretical foundation. It’s no surprise, therefore, that many students decide to pursue higher education. Here are some of the available options:

• Master of Science in Computer Science
• Master in Computer Management
• Bachelor of Technology in Computer Science

Key Differences Between BCA and BCs Computer Science

Want to know which is better: BSc Computer Science or BCA? To get the answer, you need to learn about the differences between the two degrees.

Course Focus

You wouldn’t be wrong if you said the two programs are similar. But there’s a significant difference between BCA and BSc Computer Science: course focus. BCA is all about application it centers on current technology, computing, and programming trends. The program is ideal for students who are more interested in practical knowledge.

On the other hand, BSc Computer Science is perfect for those who like reading theory, doing research, and learning about different computer-related concepts.

Curriculum

The battle between theoretical and practical knowledge is (of course) reflected in the curriculum. The subjects BCA features develop practical, application-oriented skills, while BSc Computer Science prefers theory.

Eligibility Criteria

While trying not to sound like a broken record, let’s repeat it once again: it depends on the university. As a rule of thumb, BSc Computer Science has stricter criteria.

Career Opportunities

As far as career opportunities are concerned, both programs will set you up for success in the industry. Of course, each program opens doors to different fields. Students who complete the BCA program pursue jobs in IT or software development. Those who complete the BSc Computer Science program usually continue their education or work as researchers.

Which Is Better: BCA or BSc Computer Science?

Given that each program focuses on different aspects, it’s hard to say one stands out as “the best.” Every person is unique, and what suits you may not work for someone else. It all comes down to your future plans and ambitions. Going down the technical-heavy route is great for coding or anything else that calls for theoretical applications, but it won’t help much if you need experience in something practical, like game design. By the same token, you’ll need to draw from a well of technical knowledge when you’re working in data science or IT analysis. The choice comes down to balancing these three factors:

• Personal interest and aptitude – Do you prefer theory or practice?
• Career goals – What do you want to do after completing the program?
• Future education plans – Do you want to continue your education after the program?

Answer these questions to get a better idea of whether you should opt for BCA or BSc Computer Science. Remember, there’s no wrong answer. Picking a course isn’t like playing Russian roulette. It’s more like playing those little arcade machines that guarantee a prize with every turn – there’s no way to lose! Whatever you choose, you can build a fruitful career with computers. The path you decide to take solely depends on whether you prefer theory or practice.

Pros and Cons of Each Course

What are the strengths and weaknesses of each course? Find out here.

BCA

Pros:

• Offers practical knowledge
• Follow the latest industry trends
• Less strict entry requirements
• Job-oriented

Cons:

• Challenging course structure
• Technology rapidly evolves, so you need to constantly update your skills to stay current

BCs in Computer Science

Pros:

• Offers excellent theoretical knowledge
• Great for those who want to continue their education
• Ideal for researchers
• Provides a strong foundation

Cons:

• Stricter eligibility criteria
• Some consider it too theoretical

Tips for Making the Right Choice

These valuable tips can help you choose the right program:

• Consider your expectations. Think about what you want to get from this course and where you want it to take you career-wise.
• Study the curriculum. The curriculum is like a program’s CV. If you want to know whether it’s a good fit for you, you need to research it carefully.
• Talk to someone who completed the program you’re interested in. A person who completed the course can offer valuable intel and help you determine whether you’re on the right track.
• Consult an academic advisor. An advisor can analyze your preferences and put them into a concrete suggestion on which direction you should take.
• Think about what you want to do next. Do you want to continue your education or find a job in the industry? The answer can help you make the right decision.

Find Your Passion

The biggest difference between BSc Computer Science and BCA lies in the curriculum. With the former, the subjects focus on obtaining theoretical knowledge to set the ground for further education or research. On the other hand, BCA focuses on practical skills and exploring current trends.

Instead of wondering which is best: BCA or BSc Computer Science, think about your preferences and requirements. Explore your priorities, research both options, talk to professionals, and you’ll recognize the better fit.